A lot of the time being able to start a fire can mean the between life and death. Fire has many uses. It provides warmth, comfort, and protection from animals. It is used to cook and preserve food (hot food in turn saves calories our body normally produces for body heat). Fire is critical in to purifying water and sterilizing bandages. You can signal for rescue. You can also use fire to produce tools and weapons. Not to mention the psychological boost fire provides by providing peace of mind and companionship.

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However, fire can also cause problems. The smoke and light it produces will alert anyone and anything to your presence. If it isn’t controlled it can get out of hand and cause forests fires or destroy essential tools and equipment. Fire can also burn you and if used indoors, cause carbon monoxide poisoning.

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            While fire craft is essential,

the responsibility of fire caution goes hand in hand.

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Making Fire

One of the most fundamental wilderness skills is making fire. There are several different ways to make fire and a good survivalist learns many of them so they can build a fire with whatever is available and under any condition. 

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Fire is essential for warmth, cooking, and medical purposes like purifying water and sterilizing equipment. It is also a mainstay in self-protection from animals and insects as well as providing light and signaling for help.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF FIRE

To build a fire you need three things; Air (or oxygen), heat (or a spark), and fuel. Most people don’t realize that fuel (in a nongaseous state) does not burn directly. When heated, it produces a gas. It’s the gas, combined with the oxygen in the air that burns. If any one of the three requirements are removed, the fire will go out.

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The ratio of the three elements dictates efficiency of your fire. If there is too much oxygen your fire will burn too hot and consume the fuel quickly, not enough oxygen and the fire sputters and chokes out. If you add too much fuel your fire will burn out of control, not enough and the fire starves. Too much heat will also consume your fuel fast and shorten the fires life.

Just like all survival skills, practice is essential.

 

SITE SELECTION

Select it with care, a good fire location is important. Selecting a site to build you fire requires consideration of many contributing factors. How quickly are you in need of the fire and what do you have to work with? You will need a dry spot, one that is protected from the wind and elements. You will need a supply of fuel and a source of heat. You will have to decide on what kind of fire you need, is it for cooking, heat, light, medicinal purposes? Research the following methods and styles of fires and choose wisely. Rehearse your decisions for quick action when necessary.

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If you are in a wooded or brush-covered area, clear the brush and scrape the surface soil from the spot you have selected. Clear a circle at least 1 meter in diameter so there is little chance of the fire spreading.

Time permitting, construct a fire wall or pit (firewalls reflect the heat and reduce the effects of wind and rain). You need only enough air flow to supply the fire.

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                Gather a supply of fuel (all three kinds). Also, gather supplies and equipment to extinguish the fire when you are finished with it or if it tries to get out of control (dirt, water, e a wet tarp). Remember removing any of the three elements will make the fire go out.

 

Tinder
Tinder is the most important part of starting your fire, so prepare it well.

Tinder is material that ignites very easily and is the first fuel used in

starting a fire. The best tinder is dry material that takes only a spark

to ignite. Tinder must be kept absolutely dry. Some of things you can

use for tinder include paper, leaves, grass, bark and resin. Resin has

the extra plus of burning even when wet. You can find resin in spruce and pine trees.

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You can turn dry sticks and pieces of bark into powdery tinder with a knife and rubbing resin on them makes the tinder more flammable. Be sure to prepare plenty of tinder because it burns quickly and must last long enough to catch the kindling. It’s always a good practice to collect tinder before you need it, during the entire time you are hiking. Keep a special pocket or pouch in your pack. Always be prepared.
 

When you light the tinder with a match, spark or glass, immediately feed the kindling to catch. (If you intend to use a striker or other spark generating device you would do best preparing and including charred cloth (almost essential) in your survival kit).

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Charred cloth holds a spark for a long time, giving you to feed tinder onto the hot area and generate a small flame. (You can make charred cloth by heating cotton cloth until it turns black, but does not burn. Once it is black, you must keep it in an airtight container to keep it dry. This cloth should be prepared well in advance of any survival situation and included in your survival kit).

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Other tinder includes; Birch Bark, Shredded inner bark from cedar, chestnut or red elm trees, Fine wood shavings, Dead grass, ferns, moss or fungi, Straw Sawdust, Very fine pitch wood scrapings, Dead evergreen needles, Punk (completely rotted portions of dead logs or trees), Evergreen tree knots, Bird down (the feathers), Down seed heads (milkweed, dry cattails, bulrush, or thistle), Fine dried vegetable fibers, Spongy threads of dead puff balls, Dead palm leaves, Skin like membrane lining of bamboo, Lint from your pocket or seams, outer bamboo shavings, Waxed paper, Gunpowder, Cotton,

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Kindling
Kindling is easily combustible material that you add immediately to the burning tinder it should easily light when placed on a small flame.

Again, this material must be absolutely dry so it catches quickly. Kindling increases the

fire's temperature and air flow so that it can ignite your less combustible fuel.

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Kindling can include; Small twigs, Small strips of wood, Split wood, Heavy cardboard, interior pieces of wood (removed from larger pieces of wood) wood that has been doused or soaked in highly flammable materials such as gasoline, oil or wax.

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Fuel

Fuel is less combustible material that burns slower and more steady once ignited. Start with smaller fuel pieces and add larger pieces of firewood to the fire as it grows. Keep your firewood is as dry as possible as it takes more heat to dry the wood before it can burn and add to the heat.

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Dead trees make a good source of dry firewood. Some other possible sources of fuel include; Dry, standing wood, dry dead branches, dry inside or heart of fallen tree trunks and large branches, green wood that is finely split, dry grasses twisted into bunches, peat dry enough to burn (this may be found at the top of undercut banks), dried animal dung, animal’s fats, coal, oil shale, or surface oils.

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Lighting a Fire

There are some common-sense things that slip by the non-survivalist. Simple as they seem, if someone has never taken he time to think these things out they may not be as obvious to them.

Light your fire with the wind is at your back blowing into the fire (from upwind).

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Place your tinder underneath the kindling but within easy reach. Tinder catches quickly and you must maximize the initial flame’s ability to catch the kindling. (There are several designs or methods to do this, we call it “laying” the fire) providing the heat or spark can be done in many ways as well.

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Matches and Lighters

                                            Modern methods use lighters and matches with a dependable striker                                             pad. (Waterproofed if possible). Today these are light and easy to                                                     include in your survival kits.

                                            However, there are many other fire lighting methods at your disposal                                             for those times when the modern tools are not available.

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Convex Lens

This method is really, only effective on bright, sunny days. The lens

can come from any number of sources, binoculars, a camera,

telescopic sights, glasses, mirrors, or magnifying glasses, even a

piece of broken glass can be nurtured into a focusing lens. Angle

the lens to concentrate the sun's rays on the tinder. keep the lens

focused on the same spot until the tinder smolders or bursts into flame. Then, blow on or fan the tinder into flame to catch the kindling.

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Metal Match (fire stick)

                                          Best practice calls for placing a leaf, piece of dried paper, or a portion                                             of charred cloth under your tinder with a target portion exposed. Put                                             the tip of the metal match on the target, holding the metal match in                                               one hand and a knife or metal striker in the other. Scrape your striker                                           against the metal match to produce sparks. The sparks will hit the                                                 tinder. When the tinder starts to smolder. Then, blow on or fan the                                                 tinder into flame to catch the kindling.

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Battery

Using a battery to generate a spark depends on having a battery

and the type of battery available. Attach a wire to each terminal

or top and bottom. Touch or strike the ends of the bare wires

together as close to and in the direction of the tinder as possible

so the sparks will ignite it.

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Gunpowder

                                          If you have ammunition with your equipment. You can carefully                                                        extract the bullet from the casing, and use the gunpowder as tinder.                                              Almost any spark will ignite the powder. We cannot emphasize                                                        enough being extremely careful when extracting the bullet from the                                              case.

 

Flint and Steel

The direct spark method is one of the easiest of the primitive methods

to use. Using flint and steel to provide a spark is still one of the most

reliable of methods. Strike your flint or a sharp-edged rock edge on a

piece of carbon steel (stainless steel will not produce a good spark).

This method requires practice to get a good spark. When a spark has

hit and caught in the tinder, blow on it (gently again as with all the tinder persuading).

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Fire-Plow

                                       The fire-plow is a method that uses friction to ignite. You rub a                                                           hardwood shaft against a softer wood base. This method requires you                                           to cut a straight groove in the softwood base and plow or push                                                         repeatedly a blunt tipped end of the hardwood shaft up and down the                                           groove. This plowing action pushes or scrapes out small slivers of wood                                         fibers. Then, as you apply more pressure on each stroke, the friction                                               ignites the wood particles. These embers are dumped onto your tinder                                         to start the fire building process.

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Bow and Drill

The technique of starting a fire with a bow and drill (Figure 7-8) is simple, but you must exert much effort and be persistent to produce a fire. You need the following items to use this method:

• Socket. The socket is an easily grasped stone or piece of hardwood  

     or bone with a slight depression in one side. Use it to hold the drill

     in place and to apply downward pressure.

• Drill. The drill should be a straight, seasoned hardwood stick about

     2 centimeters in diameter and 25 centimeters long. The top end is

     round and the low end blunt (to produce more friction).

• Fire board. Its size is up to you. A seasoned softwood board about 2.5 centimeters thick and 10 centimeters wide is preferable. Cut a depression about 2 centimeters from the edge on one side of the board. On the underside, make a V-shaped cut from the edge of the board to the depression.

• Bow. The bow is a resilient, green stick about 2.5 centimeters in diameter and a string. The type of wood is not important. The bowstring can be any type of cordage. You tie the bowstring from one end of the bow to the other, without any slack.

 

To use the bow and drill, first prepare the fire lay. Then place a bundle of tinder under the V-shaped cut in the fire board. Place one foot on the fire board. Loop the bowstring over the drill and place the drill in the precut depression on the fire board. Place the socket, held in one hand, on the top of the drill to hold it in position. Press down on the drill and saw the bow back and forth to twirl the drill (Figure 7-8). Once you have established a smooth motion, apply more downward pressure and work the bow faster. This action will grind hot black powder into the tinder, causing a spark to catch. Blow on the tinder until it ignites.

Note: Primitive fire-building methods require practice to ensure success.

 

Laying the Fire

There are several methods for laying a fire, each of which has advantages. The situation you find yourself in will determine which fire to use.

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Laying the fire includes the proper portion of tinder, kindling and fuel to be sure but also requires the builder to think about the weather conditions, uses for the fire, materials at hand, and safety.

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Most fires need some sort of protection, either from game or detection or the elements.

First decide the size you need, cooking and warmth can be relatively small and easy to control, signal fires need more size and are harder to keep under control.

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Next decide how much protection is necessary for the fire and the area around the fire. Pits and open fires are not protected from the elements (rain, wind, et,) and need the immediate area scoured(there should be nothing around the fire that could catch and spread). Fireplace styles are much more protected, but require more time and effort (better for a permanent site).

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Then decide what you have to work with. If your fuel is abundant, how much time is available for tending? Some fires can be built to “time out”, other are self-feeding.

 

Fireplace

Clear any debris away and start the fire on solid ground

or on a layer of stones or on a flat shale rock. This will

reduce the possibility of a ground fire spread and leave

a minimal trace of the fire on the ground. Select your

fire location.

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First choose a site that is as sheltered and protected as

possible.

If you are going to build a break wall, use green wood,

vent the fire away from flammables and possibly douse

or coat in mud. Consider the wind, and how visible your

fire is going to be. Try to find a site near a supply of wood or other fuel available.

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Safety is an essential consideration.
CAUTION: Do not use wet or porous rocks as they may explode when heated.

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You may find that an underground fireplace will best meet your

needs. It conceals the fire and serves especially well for cooking

food.

To make an underground fireplace (Dakota fire hole).

• Dig a hole in the ground.

• On the upwind side of this hole, poke or dig a nearly as large

      connecting tunnel for ventilation.

• Build your fire in the hole (probably a tepee or lean-to style) as illustrated.

 

Elevated Open Field

If you are in a damp, or snow-covered area, you can use green (better then wet) logs to make an elevated dry base for your fire. Saplings with wrist-sized trunks can be bent and stepped on to break in extreme cold. Cut or break several green logs and place them side by side on top of the ground or snow. Layer then for more elevation in deeper snow. Crisscross the layers for better air flow and stability.

 

Tepee

                                      To make a tepee fire, arrange the tinder in a lose pile and stand a few                                             sticks of kindling in the shape of a tepee or cone. Light the tinder                                                     center. As the tepee burns, the outside logs will fall inward, feeding the                                         fire. This type of fire, works and burns well even with wet wood.

 

Lean-To

This is a version of a teepee fire and is usually used for a larger version.

To lay this fire push a green stick into the ground at an approximate

30-degree angle (too steep allows too much air and won’t concentrate

the heat). Point the high end of the stick towards the wind. Put your

tinder deep under this lean-to stick away from the high side. Lean your

pieces of kindling against the lean-to stick about a half inch apart

(closer if the wind in brisk). Light the tinder. As the kindling catches fire from the tinder, add more kindling.

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Cross-Ditch

                                        To use this method, dig a cross or an “X” about a foot in length in the                                              ground and about 3 inches deep. Fill the middle of the cross with                                                      tinder. Stack a kindling pyramid above the tinder. The shallow ditch                                                allows air to sweep under the tinder to provide a draft and improve                                                the air flow.

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Pyramid

To lay this fire, place your two largest logs or branches parallel on the

ground. Then place a solid layer (5 or 6) of some smaller logs across

the parallel logs. Pile three or four more layers of logs or branches,

each layer smaller than and at a right angle to the layer below it.

Make your starter fire on top of the pyramid. As the starter fire

burns, it will spread to the logs below it. This gives you a fire that

burns downward, requiring less attention during the night.

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There are several other ways to lay a fire that are quite effective.

Your situation and the material available in the area may make

another method more suitable. A self-feeding fire as shown here

may be another option. Placing parallel logs flat on the ground,

building your starter fire in the middle of those logs, and bracing

a couple of angled, greener branches to “load” up with the feeder

logs. As the bottom logs burn the higher logs are automatically fed into the flame.

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HELPFUL HINTS

• Use nonaromatic seasoned hardwood for fuel, if possible.

• Collect kindling and tinder along the trail.

• Add insect repellent to the tinder.

• Keep the firewood dry.

• Dry damp firewood near the fire.

• Bank the fire to keep the coals alive overnight.

• Carry lighted punk, when possible.

• Be sure the fire is out before leaving camp.

• Do not select wood lying on the ground. It may appear to be dry but generally doesn't provide enough friction.

 

FIRE IN COLD WEATHER

Fire is especially important in cold weather providing you with warmth, a way and means to prepared your food, and to melt snow or ice for water. It also provides you with a significant psychological boost by making you feel a little more secure in your situation.

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By using any of the techniques described above to build and light your fire you can overcome many survival challenges.

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Remember that the smoke, smell, and light from your fire may reveal your location. Light reflects from surrounding trees or rocks, making even indirect light a source of danger. Smoke tends to go straight up in cold, calm weather, making it a beacon during the day, but helping to conceal the smell at night. In warmer weather, especially in a wooded area, smoke tends to hug the ground, making it less visible in the day, but making its odor spread, cut low tree boughs rather than the entire tree for firewood. Fallen trees are easily seen from the air.

 

All wood bill burn, but some types of wood create more smoke than others. For instance, coniferous (cone bearing or evergreen) trees that contain resin and tar create more and darker smoke than deciduous (ones that lose their leaves) trees.

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Fuel in regards to location:

in the high mountainous regions or in the arctic there are fewer materials to use for fuel. You may find some grasses and moss, but very little. The lower the elevation, the more fuel available. You may find some scrub willow and small, stunted spruce trees above the tree line. On sea ice, fuels are seemingly nonexistent. Driftwood or fats may be the only fuels available to a survivor on the barren coastlines in the arctic and subarctic regions.

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Abundant fuels within the tree line are--

• Spruce trees are common in the interior regions, a conifer, spruce makes a lot of smoke when burned especially in the spring and summer months. However, it burns almost smoke-free in late fall and winter.

• The tamarack tree is also a conifer. It is the only tree of the pine family that loses its needles in the fall. Without its needles, it looks like a dead spruce, but it has many knobby buds and cones on its bare branches. When burning, tamarack wood makes a lot of smoke and is excellent for signaling purposes.

• Birch trees are deciduous and the wood burns hot and fast, almost as if soaked with oil or kerosene. Most birches grow near streams and lakes, but occasionally you will find a few on higher ground and away from water.

• Willow and alder grow in arctic regions, normally in marsh areas or near lakes and streams. These woods burn hot and fast without much smoke.

 

Dried moss, grass, and scrub willow are other materials you can use for fuel. These are usually plentiful near streams in tundras (open, treeless plains). By bundling or twisting grasses or other scrub vegetation to form a large, solid mass, you will have a slower burning, more productive fuel.

If fuel or oil is available from a wrecked vehicle or downed aircraft, use it for fuel. Leave the fuel in the tank for storage, drawing on the supply only as you need it. Oil congeals in extremely cold temperatures, therefore, drain it from the vehicle or aircraft while still warm if there is no danger of explosion or fire. If you have no container, let the oil drain onto the snow or ice. Scoop up the fuel as you need it.

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CAUTION

Do not expose flesh to petroleum, oil, and lubricants in extremely cold temperatures.

The liquid state of these products is deceptive in that it can cause frostbite.

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Some plastic products, such as MRE spoons, helmet visors, visor housings, aid foam rubber will ignite quickly from a burning match and can be used as tinder. They will also burn long enough to help start a fire. For example, a plastic spoon will burn for about 10 minutes.

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Hazards with fires in cold weather regions:

There are some hazards in using fires, whether to keep warm or to cook. For example

• Fires have been known to burn underground, resurfacing nearby. Therefore, do not build a fire too close to a shelter.

• In snow shelters, excessive heat will melt the insulating layer of snow that may also be your camouflage.

• A fire inside a shelter lacking adequate ventilation can result in carbon monoxide poisoning.

• A person trying to get warm or to dry clothes may become careless and burn or scorch his clothing and equipment.

• Melting overhead snow may get you wet, bury you and your equipment, and possibly extinguish your fire.

 

In general, a small fire and some type of stove is the best

combination for cooking purposes. A hobo stove (to the

right) is particularly suitable to the arctic. It is easy to

make out of a tin can, and it conserves fuel. A bed of hot

coals provides the best cooking heat. Coals from a crisscross

fire will settle uniformly. Make this type of fire by crisscrossing

the firewood. A simple crane propped on a forked stick will hold a cooking container over a fire.

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For heating purposes, a single candle provides enough heat to warm an enclosed shelter. A small fire about the size of a man's hand is ideal for use in enemy territory. It requires very little fuel, yet it generates considerable warmth and is hot enough to warm liquids.

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Remember:
- Never leave a campfire unattended. Make sure your fire is completely out before leaving camp. Check it at least twice.